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LogSeq/pages/hls__Computer_Organization_and_Design_1681729306797_0.md
ridethepig d79a4b8ee6 COD Chapter 1
2023-05-04 10:59:04 +08:00

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file:: Computer_Organization_and_Design_1681729306797_0.pdf file-path:: ../../../../assets/Computer_Organization_and_Design_1681729306797_0.pdf

  • Computer Abstractions and Technology

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  • omnipresent 无所不在的 ubiquitous hl-page:: 27 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643e2b82-f5a5-411e-9571-d494858c175a hl-color:: green
  • Classes of Computing Applications and Their Characteristics ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 28 hl-color:: yellow id:: 643e2b9c-0bc2-4b02-b2b1-33e25539d5b9
  • credo 信条，教义 ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 30 hl-color:: green id:: 643e473a-2f03-419b-ad3a-8309c33dff15
  • unraveling 解开；阐明； hl-page:: 31 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643e47b3-cc6c-4fd1-83a9-0510b16a5e9c hl-color:: green
  • acronyms 首字母缩略词 ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 32 hl-color:: green id:: 643e485f-8de8-41bf-86ac-812ba202f4c8
  • leverage 影响力；杠杆作用 hl-page:: 33 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643e4871-3ebb-4578-9227-b40a534adeac hl-color:: green
  • intrinsic 固有的, 内在的, 本质的 ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 33 hl-color:: green id:: 643e4882-a5ea-4bff-9b5f-17f585313142
  • weave 编织；杜撰 hl-page:: 34 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643e492d-5e63-4b9b-93f7-4f44bf50158e hl-color:: green
  • Below Your Program ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 36 hl-color:: yellow id:: 643ea1cf-af0e-45ba-97b3-376fd21ee1e3 collapsed:: true
    • From a High-Level Language to the Language of Hardware ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 37 hl-color:: yellow id:: 643ea1d7-cd7d-4e81-8d6f-c268aab04f68
  • Under the Covers ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 39 hl-color:: yellow id:: 643ea295-e170-403a-a43d-71777bb41d9b collapsed:: true
    • The five classic components of a computer are input, output, memory, datapath, and control ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 40 hl-color:: yellow id:: 643ea2f7-1fa7-4c12-ad2d-34a90d6968b7
    • liquid crystal displays (LCDs) hl-page:: 41 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643ea91c-7643-4563-9341-f85096313a3b hl-color:: yellow
      • The LCD is not the source of light but instead controls the transmission of light. There is a background light source and the LCD has many rods which bend light to make it pass through. When applied with a current, the rod no more bends light thus controlling the pixel.
      • an active matrix that has a tiny transistor switch at each pixel to precisely control current and make sharper images ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 41 hl-color:: yellow id:: 643ead73-e1a6-4f10-82c5-2760a4ce839f
    • instruction set architecture hl-page:: 45 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643eb029-9fe9-4013-a4a2-1365e195333b hl-color:: yellow
      • interface between the hardware and low-level software, distinguish architecture from implementation
  • rod 杆；竿；棒 ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 41 hl-color:: green id:: 643ea931-ff7e-4bd7-96d1-b7eab4dcc563
  • helix n. 螺旋 hl-page:: 41 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643ea93a-fa50-486a-b74a-d96f2a4df9aa hl-color:: green
  • raster 光栅 ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 41 hl-color:: green id:: 643ea8f8-7e5f-42e3-a04a-01cd91f25d13
  • brawn 体力；发达的肌肉 ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 42 hl-color:: green id:: 643eaede-f413-4717-9136-e28363909bb3
  • Technologies for Building Processors and Memory ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 47 hl-color:: yellow id:: 643eb311-6b10-4fa3-9aa3-dfd5a59acf2c collapsed:: true
    • Semiconductor, silicon: add materials to silicon that allow tiny areas to transform into one of three devices: Excellent conductor, Excellent insulator and Transistor (conduct/insulate at some conditions) hl-page:: 48 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643eb66d-0294-46ab-a182-20021b2495c5 hl-color:: yellow
    • Silicon ingot sliced into Blank wafers, processed into Patterned wafers, and then Tested wafer, diced into Tested dies, bonded to package, finally Tested packaged dies
    • die: Rectangular sections cut from a wafer (actually chip)
    • yield: Percentage of good dies from the total dies on the wafer
  • quadruple 四倍的；四重的； hl-page:: 48 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643eb37e-2927-4100-b8b3-c76bbe5450f4 hl-color:: green
  • Performance ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 51 hl-color:: yellow id:: 643ec3be-027e-48b5-90e0-cd4a5e901691 collapsed:: true
    • response/execution time: time between the start and completion of a task hl-page:: 52 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643fb234-d566-4913-a03b-c574e6a623c4 hl-color:: yellow
      • \text{Performance}_X = \frac{1}{\text{Execution time}_X}
      • Relative Performance: A is ==n times as fast as== B, which means the same program runs for 1/n time on A of that on B hl-page:: 54 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643fe045-80bb-4c47-b601-3fdc9175581d hl-color:: yellow
    • throughput: the total amount of work done in a given time hl-page:: 53 ls-type:: annotation id:: 643fb242-9401-42fa-bddc-d93e571b6e99 hl-color:: yellow
    • Measuring Performance ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 55 hl-color:: yellow id:: 6440d1fd-a2c1-4d4c-a493-3b5c7d91448e
      • Elapsed time: total time to complete a task, including RAM access, IO and other overhead.
      • CPU time: time that CPU spends on computing for this task and not includes IO or waiting for schedule
        • user CPU time
        • system CPU time: time that OS performing tasks on behalf of the program (syscall?)
    • CPU Performance and Its Factors ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 56 hl-color:: yellow id:: 6440d4c6-9dc2-4712-9d25-6386325581e5
      • clock cycles: discrete time intervals
        • clock period: length of a clock cycle
        • clock rate: inverse of the clock period
      • For a specific program, CPU time = CPU clock cycles \times Clock cycle time = CPU clock cycles \div Clock rate
    • Instruction Performance ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 58 hl-color:: yellow id:: 6440d70f-cde0-41ca-af1b-82d5a777a7a8
      • CPU clock cycles = Instruction count \times CPI
      • CPI (clock Cycles Per Instruction): average number of cycles each instruction takes to execute (for one program)
        • compare two different implementations of the same ISA
    • The Classic CPU Performance Equation ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 59 hl-color:: yellow id:: 6440d99c-e080-4352-8c2d-7d35e897a2ee
      • CPU time = Instruction count \times CPI \div Clock rate
      • The formulas separates 3 key factors affecting the performance
      • The only complete and reliable measure of computer performance is time. hl-page:: 61 ls-type:: annotation id:: 6440dc59-a80f-4185-9692-8e4122cad4b4 hl-color:: yellow
      • CPI depends on a wide variety of design details in the computer hl-page:: 61 ls-type:: annotation id:: 6440dcd2-ae75-4a59-a2c5-aff6e3bf7953 hl-color:: yellow
  • The Power Wall ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 63 hl-color:: yellow id:: 6440df39-4ac7-4efc-b59a-64db6354ca0f collapsed:: true
    • dynamic energy: The energy consumed when transistors switch states, primary source of energy consumption for CMOS.
    • The energy of a single transition: \text{Energy} \propto \frac12 \times \text{Capacitive load} \times \text{Voltage}^2
    • The power required per transistor: \text{Power} \propto \frac12 \times \text{Capacitive load} \times \text{Voltage}^2 \times \text{Frequency switched}
      • Frequency switched is a function of the clock rate
      • Capacitive load is a function of fanout (number of transistors connected to an output) and the technology (capacitance of wires and transistors).
    • Main way to reduce power is to lower the voltage.
      • There is problem with low voltage: this makes the capacitor leakage increase. (static energy)
  • slam 砰地关上(门或窗)；抨击 hl-page:: 65 ls-type:: annotation id:: 6440e306-7625-4883-b3f0-fbdca42d92e3 hl-color:: green
  • faucet 水龙头 ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 65 hl-color:: green id:: 6440e5e4-e02f-43e3-9311-64f8b6d67f75
  • unwieldy ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 65 hl-color:: green id:: 6440e73c-8061-47b2-bc37-522db24f1707
  • startling ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 66 hl-color:: green id:: 6440e8c9-0024-4751-8233-43e8cea16699
  • stiffer ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 68 hl-color:: green id:: 6440e99d-0c7d-4acb-9ba7-9172e1d383d8
  • The Sea Change: The Switch from Uniprocessors to Multiprocessors ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 66 hl-color:: yellow id:: 6440e9ca-16a4-48ed-9648-adafb74ce097
    • This section is about the difficulty of parallel programming and relative materials.
  • Fallacies and Pitfalls ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 72 hl-color:: yellow id:: 6440ea56-fdd5-426f-9a76-d5b5a7465c55 collapsed:: true
    • Amdahl's Law: $\text{Execution time after improvement} = \frac{\text{Execution time affected by improvement} }{\text{Amount of improvement}} + \text{Execution time unaffected}$ hl-page:: 72 ls-type:: annotation id:: 6441179d-ae59-49b4-8903-874cb5b7c9cd hl-color:: yellow
      • Thus, we CANNOT expect ==improvement of one aspect== of a computer to ==increase overall performance by an amount proportional== to the size of improvement.
    • Computers at low utilization don't necessarily use little power, or in other words, power consumption is not proportional to the system's load. hl-page:: 73 ls-type:: annotation id:: 6441212c-596a-463c-a47a-04478b16268b hl-color:: yellow
    • MIPS (million instructions per second) = $\frac{\text{Instruction count}}{\text{Execution time} \times 10^6} = \frac{\text{Clock rate}}{\text{CPI} \times 10^6}$ hl-page:: 74 ls-type:: annotation id:: 64412369-dd7a-4a26-9979-be7179f38df6 hl-color:: yellow
      • Problem 1: it doesn't take into account the Instruction count, or the capability of each instruction. We should not compare computers with different ISAs.
      • Problem 2: MIPS varies between programs even on the same computer.
      • Problem 3: MIPS can vary independently from performance.
  • ensnared ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 72 hl-color:: green id:: 6440ec21-aef2-4494-8b50-d16a83c0d9bb
  • corollary ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 72 hl-color:: green id:: 6441170f-b51b-453a-b612-0b71b2b6032d
  • demoralize ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 72 hl-color:: green id:: 64411718-be78-469d-9b83-0dfd9c83338b
  • plague ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 72 hl-color:: green id:: 64411720-4c6a-49ce-8a72-4aa19e7b8482
  • preclude ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 75 hl-color:: green id:: 6440ebb6-a98d-465f-8345-3da49486f653
  • constituent ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 75 hl-color:: green id:: 6440ebc6-59b1-4b7e-ae67-75559989873b
  • impeachable ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 75 hl-color:: green id:: 6440ebd7-8c0c-4a18-9d86-bd95714f58ac

  • Instructions: Language of the Computer

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  • palatable ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 86 hl-color:: green id:: 64412a38-84ed-4f97-b83d-911772eb7158
  • rationale ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 86 hl-color:: green id:: 64412bbd-513c-4e00-8576-7ef88749e552
  • Operations of the Computer Hardware ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 86 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64412ca1-c9b5-4d6b-ba19-d353992dd2f1
    • Three-operand arithmetic instructions
  • Operands of the Computer Hardware ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 89 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64412cc0-59a8-4a38-9094-1a7bd916a41f
    • Registers, where operands of arithmetic instructions must reside
      • Register size is a word (32 bit)
      • 32 registers in MIPS.
        • fewer registers to keep clock cycles fast (though 31 regs may not be faster then 32 regs)
        • instruction format (5-bit field for register number)
    • data transfer instructions ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 91 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64412fc0-7ad1-4c8a-9c03-c198e741605b
      • memory to register or inverse
      • alignment restriction: Words must start at addresses that are multiples of 4 hl-page:: 92 ls-type:: annotation id:: 6441425c-134d-449d-ae39-4db48a67054c hl-color:: yellow
      • memory is addressed by byte
      • MIPS is in the big-endian camp (though the textbook says so, the latest MIPS32 by default is little endian) hl-page:: 93 ls-type:: annotation id:: 64414940-7d06-4339-af0b-974b1b34dbc5 hl-color:: yellow
    • Constant or Immediate Operands ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 95 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64414a51-2d38-48ff-b0c0-bc53f9c5fadb
      • Constant operands occur frequently, and by ==including constants inside arithmetic instructions==, operations are much ==faster== and use ==less energy== than if constants were ==loaded from memory==. hl-page:: 95 ls-type:: annotation id:: 64414af2-05ea-4a88-baf6-a19462b4c3a9 hl-color:: yellow
      • Since MIPS supports ==negative constants==, there is no need for subtract immediate in MIPS. ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 96 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64414b4e-cf31-4e7f-8320-2f1bbcbf9b32
  • Signed and Unsigned Numbers ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 96 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64414b5f-de73-4bbc-812d-8ebd0f082ea0
    • binary digits hl-page:: 96 ls-type:: annotation id:: 64414bb1-c764-493b-b555-4e241a31f255 hl-color:: yellow
      • value of ith digit: d \times \text{Base}^i
      • LSB and MSB
      • Numbers have infinite number of digits, binary bit patterns are simply representatives of numbers. Thus, there are various ways of handling overflow. hl-page:: 97 ls-type:: annotation id:: 64414c34-4dc9-4127-9938-faf0374b6c29 hl-color:: yellow
    • Signed numbers
      • sign and magnitude: add a separate sign bit. Problems with this approach, need an extra step to set the sign during calculation, negative and positive zero hl-page:: 98 ls-type:: annotation id:: 64414d4d-71a4-44df-9475-d710bfee40d3 hl-color:: yellow
      • two's compliment
        • the value of this form can be written as (d_{31} \cdot -2^{31}) + d_{30} \cdot 2^{30} + \dots, note the first -2^{31}
      • one's compliment: negate operation is to simply invert each bit
    • sign extension: copy the sign repeatedly to fill the rest of the register when loading from memory hl-page:: 99 ls-type:: annotation id:: 64414fbb-4773-4332-bf21-f533847d0bde hl-color:: yellow
      • This trick works because positive 2's complement numbers really have an infinite number of 0s on the left and negative 2's complement numbers have an infinite number of 1s. The binary bit pattern representing a number hides leading bits to fit the width of the hardware; sign extension simply restores some of them. hl-page:: 101 ls-type:: annotation id:: 64415085-a9e5-4193-a5d1-9c90f5d63ea8 hl-color:: yellow
  • moot ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 99 hl-color:: green id:: 64414e6e-e6f7-4d05-865f-a18455c509ba
  • Representing Instructions in the Computer ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 103 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64414d2f-3ea8-45a6-9a7a-b84f74a554cf
    • MIPS Fields ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 105 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64415179-3df0-431e-9e53-8608796931dd
      • In order to keep the instructions regular (aligned by word), MIPS has irregular layouts for different types of instruct.
      • R-type: op | rs | rt | rd | shamt | funct
      • I-type: op | rs | rt | constant/address
        • The 16-bit address means a lw can only load from a region of \pm 2^{15} bytes of the base register.
        • here rt serves as the destination register
  • Design Principles
    • Design Principle 1: Simplicity favors regularity. ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 88 hl-color:: yellow id:: 644152b5-ee31-4da9-86e4-33d7472f04c3
    • Design Principle 2: Smaller is faster. ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 90 hl-color:: yellow id:: 644152aa-00c2-4542-abaf-7048e6d37904
    • Design Principle 3: Good design demands good compromises. ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 106 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64415292-0727-4366-8717-ecca11267baf
  • Logical Operations ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 110 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64415118-595d-4125-b641-333d82a58006
    • sll and srl, use the shamt (shift amount) field
    • andi ori extend their 16-bit constant field by filling 0s
    • there is no exact instruction for bitwise not, but a nor (not or, a NOR b = NOT(a OR b)) instruction (perhaps in order to keep the 3-operand format)
  • Instructions for Making Decisions ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 113 hl-color:: yellow id:: 644154b4-a07e-46fd-aa88-178297b61434
    • conditional branches: bne and beq hl-page:: 113 ls-type:: annotation id:: 644156a7-b2b5-4010-97e3-a432f077cd33 hl-color:: yellow
    • Loops ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 115 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64415778-92af-4d30-b3b4-0b3dddd397f4
    • slt and slti: if rs < rt/rs < imm then rd=1 else rd=0
      • MIPS assemblers use the combination slt/slti and beq/bne and $zero to create all relative conditions
      • sltu/stliu signed and unsigned comparison are different, thus an unsigned version is provided
    • Case/Switch Statement: jump address table and jr instruction (the runtime destination address is stored in register) hl-page:: 118 ls-type:: annotation id:: 644159a7-3b96-4924-8260-0cb300307c86 hl-color:: yellow
  • dichotomy ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 117 hl-color:: green id:: 6441591a-02ed-4556-8fd7-5fdb310063e7
  • Supporting Procedures in Computer Hardware ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 119 hl-color:: yellow id:: 644156f5-e485-4140-be11-6ef87a585383
    • jal jumps to an address and simultaneously saves the address of the following instruction in $ra
    • jr jumps to the address specified in a register
    • Calling convention for register:
      • $a0-$a3: four argument registers in which to pass parameters
      • $v0–$v1: two value registers in which to return values
      • $ra: one return address register to return to the point of origin
      • $t0–$t9: temporary registers that are not preserved by the callee on a procedure call id:: 644163d9-8d4b-43e8-acec-57a835c4ce48
      • $s0–$s7: saved registers that must be preserved on a procedure call (if used, callee saves and restores them)
      • $sp: stack pointer to the most recently allocated address, push substract from $sp and pop add to $sp
      • $fp: frame pointer to the first word of the frame of a procedure
      • $gp: pointer to global static data
    • FIGURE 2.11 What is and what is not preserved across a procedure call. ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 125 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64416615-2966-4adb-a524-845337e588d3
    • Allocating Space for New Data on the Stack ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 126 hl-color:: yellow id:: 6441667f-2639-458b-91fd-8bf6b5a2c6ae
      • stack is also used to store variables that are local to the procedure but do not fit in registers
      • procedure frame or activation record ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 126 hl-color:: yellow id:: 64416688-3f6e-444e-b265-3e4a36ec51b8
      • a frame pointer offers a stable base register within a procedure for local memory-references, in that stack pointer changes during the procedure
  • spill ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 121 hl-color:: green id:: 64416330-597c-4245-8d53-a5dc643ea05f
  • wax and wane ls-type:: annotation hl-page:: 127 hl-color:: green id:: 64416671-9318-4296-9588-c0421c02cdd2
  • ASCII and String hl-page:: 129 ls-type:: annotation id:: 644167c0-1ac2-42df-b01d-4fff03a393e7 hl-color:: yellow